Speech, language and occupational therapy
What speech and language therapy and occupational therapy did for autistic people as children, what their evidence shows, and what adults are offered now.
What speech and language therapy and occupational therapy are meant to do, what studies show they do, and what autistic adults are offered now.
What speech and language therapy works on Emerging
Speech and language therapy works on speech sounds, on understanding and using language, and on social communication. The research cited here is almost all in children and is about language and social communication rather than speech sounds; much of it measures the parent and child together rather than the child alone.
The best-known trial, called PACT, taught parents to adjust how they responded to their autistic child. In 152 children aged 2 to 4, it did not improve autism symptom severity at 13 months, though it did improve the back-and-forth between parent and child.1 Across the whole trial and the follow-up, autism symptom severity was lower in the PACT group at a median of 5.75 years (effect size 0.55, 95% CI 0.14 to 0.91); the difference at the follow-up point on its own was not statistically significant, and no language difference remained.2 A later, larger trial that delivered the approach at home and at school (PACT-G, 249 children) found no effect on its main outcome at 12 months, though it did report improvements in parental wellbeing and in parent-child communication.3 Both PACT trials were run by the team that built the therapy.
Pooled across 252 studies and 13,304 children under 8, the Project AIM meta-analysis covers early childhood interventions of every kind, not speech and language therapy alone. Counting only randomized trials, behavioral interventions showed a moderate effect on social-emotional or challenging behavior, developmental interventions a small effect on social communication, and naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions small effects on language and social communication. After also setting aside caregiver- and teacher-rated outcomes and outcomes judged at high risk of bias, one effect remained significant, on a measure of autism characteristics.4 Within the same body of work, a meta-analysis of 60 studies found a small average effect on language, larger when a clinician delivered the therapy than when only a caregiver did, and larger again in children who had more language to begin with;5 an analysis of 144 studies found no link between how much intervention a child received and how much they improved.6
Across 144 studies and 9,038 children, no measure of intervention amount, whether daily intensity, total duration or cumulative hours, was associated with better outcomes.6
Very early therapy, started in infancy, is a separate question. A review of randomized trials in 715 infants and toddlers under 24 months, at increased likelihood of autism or already diagnosed, found no significant effect on autism features, thinking skills or language, with low to moderate certainty.7
Speech and language therapy works on speech, on understanding words, and on talking with other people. Most studies are about young children. Some watch the parent and child together, not just the child.
A big study called PACT taught parents how to answer their autistic child. It did not change the children's scores on the study's autism measure after 13 months. It did help the parent and child take turns.1 About six years later, the children who had PACT scored lower on that autism measure than the other children. Their language stayed the same.2 A later, bigger study found no change after 12 months.3 The team who made PACT ran the PACT studies.
Another big study, Project AIM, put together 252 studies of 13,304 children under 8. When it counted only the best studies, the help made a small change in talking and social skills. When it also dropped studies with problems, only one small change was left.4 Another study found a small change in language. It was bigger when a therapist gave the help than when only a parent did.5 One study of 144 studies found that more hours of help was not linked to better results.6
In 144 studies of 9,038 children, more hours of help was not linked to better results.6
A review looked at help for babies under 2. It found no clear change in autism signs, thinking, or language.7
A few trials and meta-analyses, mostly in children under 8 and several run by the teams that developed the therapy. The better-controlled effects are small, and most shrink once biased studies are set aside. Nothing here would reach a higher label.
Therapy that works on speech sounds, language and communication, usually delivered by a speech-language pathologist.
The PACT trials were run by the team that developed PACT, and the Project AIM analyses come from one independent group. When a treatment is tested by the people who sell or teach it, the result is more likely to be positive, so it matters who ran the study.
Some small studies agree and some do not. Most of them are about young children. So we can say "some studies show", not "this works".
Therapy that helps with speech, language, and talking with people.
Communication during distress Emerging
Distress changes how an autistic person communicates. A 2026 review of 18 studies found that distress was most often described as anxiety or stress, and that 11 of the studies described communication that was not spoken, including gestures, facial expression, and behavior such as screaming or hitting.8 The review is careful about what helps: a calm, supportive environment and communication aids were the things that made communication easier while a person was distressed. It links distress to unsupported environments, trauma, sensory overload, burnout and shutdown, pain, and mental health conditions, and argues that understanding how distress affects communication helps the people around the autistic person.
When autistic people are upset, how they communicate can change. A 2026 review of 18 studies found that being upset was usually anxiety or stress. Eleven studies found people used ways other than speech. These included hand movements, faces, and hitting or screaming.8 The review found two things that helped: a calm place and communication aids.
One scoping review of 18 mostly small and qualitative studies, half reporting autistic people's own accounts. There are no trials and no effect sizes.
A response to overload in which a person becomes unable to speak or move, rather than showing distress outwardly.
One review of 18 small studies. Half of them listened to autistic people themselves. There were no trials.
When too much going on makes someone unable to speak or move.
Occupational therapy and daily living Emerging
Occupational therapy for autistic people works on everyday activities: dressing, eating, washing, play, and school routines, along with the sensory and motor skills underneath them.
The American Occupational Therapy Association's 2024 practice guideline, built on four systematic reviews, found strong to moderate evidence for multidisciplinary, goal-directed care in general. It found only emerging evidence for building on an autistic person's strengths and interests, and for the occupational therapy itself it said more evidence is needed on participation in daily living among autistic youths.9 A survey of 40 therapists found that only about a third of the goals they named for autistic children reflected participation, and under 5% related to sensory processing.10 A review that graded pediatric occupational therapy by strength of evidence rated sensory integration as a weak positive at high risk of bias, below the approaches it endorsed without reservation.11
For adults, occupational therapy research is mostly about participation, work and getting around the community. One small study of six autistic adults found that those with sensory-sensitivity and sensory-avoiding profiles spent less time in the community and visited fewer places.12
Sensory integration therapy is the best-known occupational therapy approach for autism, but occupational therapy also covers daily living, motor skills and participation, and the professional guideline is clearest about the everyday-activity goals.9
Occupational therapy helps with everyday things. These include dressing, eating, washing, play, and school jobs.
The main guideline for occupational therapy in the US looked at many studies. It found good proof that therapy with clear goals and a team helps. It found only weak proof for using a person's strengths and interests. It said we still need more proof that it helps young autistic people with daily tasks.9 One study asked 40 therapists about their goals. Only about a third were about taking part in everyday life.10 One review graded how strong the proof was. Sensory integration was not on the list of things to use.11
For adults, occupational therapy is mostly about taking part in work and community life. It is about changing places, not about sensory training.12
Practice guidelines and small studies. The flagship professional guideline itself says the evidence for daily-living outcomes is still thin.
Therapy that helps with everyday activities, from dressing and eating to school, work and play.
Guidelines and small studies. The main guideline says we still need more proof that it helps with daily tasks.
Therapy that helps with everyday tasks, like dressing, eating, school, work, and play.
Sensory integration therapy Emerging
Ayres Sensory Integration is a trademarked occupational therapy approach built on the idea that difficulty processing sensory information drives much autistic behavior and can be changed through guided sensory activity. It is the most researched and the most contested part of occupational therapy for autism.
Since 2012, independent assessments have been cautious. A report from the American Academy of Pediatrics called the evidence for sensory integration therapy limited and inconclusive.13 A review of 30 studies concluded there was insufficient evidence to support sensory-based treatments; the research was limited by insubstantial outcomes, weak designs, or high risk of bias.14 A review of 17 single-case studies found that the higher-quality studies tended to produce negative results.15 A 2026 review of trials that followed the official ASI method found limited current evidence for a positive effect, with the positive outcomes coming from higher-risk studies.16 No Cochrane review of sensory integration therapy for autism was found as of October 2026.
The strongest positive finding is narrow. A 2025 review of nine randomized trials found strong evidence that ASI helps autistic children meet individualized goals, and at the same time moderate evidence of no benefit for behaviors of concern such as noncompliance or irritability.17 Those individualized goals are set by the therapist, using a scale that records how far a chosen goal was met. The largest trial run independently of the approach, the UK SenITA trial of 138 children, found no advantage of sensory integration therapy over usual care at 6 or 12 months and judged it not cost-effective.18 A 2026 meta-analysis of 23 trials in children, not restricted to autistic children, found effects on motor skills, daily functioning and individualized goals, but not on sensory processing or balance.19
The reviews that call the approach effective tend to come from its own side. A 2019 review concluded that ASI is an evidence-based practice for autistic children aged 4 to 12, drawing that conclusion from three studies.20 A professional-association review in 2015 found moderate evidence for ASI and mixed results for sensory-based methods.21 A separate 2025 meta-analysis of a related method used in China, built from ASI but not following the same protocol, reported large positive effects in 16 trials there, measured mainly on rating scales and only in children.22
Ayres Sensory Integration is a kind of occupational therapy. It is built on the idea that trouble with the senses causes much autistic behavior. It also says guided activity can change that. It is the most studied and most argued-about part of occupational therapy for autism.
Since 2012, careful reviews have been unsure. A doctors' group, the American Academy of Pediatrics, said the proof was limited and unclear.13 A review of 30 studies said there was not enough proof, and the studies were weak or biased.14 A review of 17 studies found that the better the study, the less it showed.15 A 2026 review found only limited proof, and the good results came from weaker studies.16 No Cochrane review of sensory integration for autism was found as of October 2026.
The best result is narrow. A 2025 review of nine trials found it can help children reach goals the therapist picks. It found no help for behavior problems, like not listening or getting angry.17 The goals are chosen by the therapist. The biggest fair test, in the UK, studied 138 children. It found no difference from usual care.18 A 2026 study of 23 trials found help with movement, daily tasks, and goals. It found no help with sensory processing.19
Several reviews and randomized trials exist, and they disagree. The positive reviews are professional-association or provider-run; the largest independent trial found no benefit. The clearest gains are on goals the therapist chooses; measures of sensory processing and, in the best reviews, behavior do not improve. No Cochrane review of sensory integration therapy for autism was found as of October 2026.
A 2026 systematic review of ten studies of interventions adhering to the revised Ayres Sensory Integration fidelity measure, in children under 10, found that no study combined proximal and distal outcomes with blind assessors and fidelity reporting, and that only four studies were at low risk of bias.16
The positive reviews are published by occupational therapy associations or by researchers who work in ASI; the negative ones come from behavior-analytic, pediatric and independent groups. Neither side's own reviews settle the question, and the field keeps finding that studies run by the people who deliver an intervention report larger effects.23
A trademarked occupational therapy approach that uses guided sensory and physical activities, developed by A. Jean Ayres.
There are many studies, and they disagree. The ones that say it works are often run by the people who teach it. The biggest fair test found no clear advantage over usual care on its main outcome. No study found as of October 2026 that it fixes sensory processing.
A kind of therapy that uses guided sensory and physical activity.
A 2026 systematic review of ten studies of interventions adhering to the revised Ayres Sensory Integration fidelity measure, in children under 10, found that no study combined proximal and distal outcomes with blind assessors and fidelity reporting, and that only four studies were at low risk of bias.16
The shift to affirming practice Emerging
The professions are publicly moving away from goals that make autistic people look non-autistic and toward goals the autistic person chooses. A scoping review of 26 studies of speech-language pathology social-communication interventions found that most still described only deficits and rarely included the autistic children's own views, even as professional guidance recommends strengths-based, family-centered practice.24 A survey of 150 school-based speech-language pathologists found that almost all were aware of the neurodiversity movement, but more than half lacked confidence writing affirming goals.25
What autistic people and families ask for is fairly consistent across studies. In one survey of 181 autistic adults, parents and professionals rating 47 possible outcomes, improving the child's mental wellbeing ranked highest, and more than half rated reducing sensory-seeking or avoidant behavior and reducing focused interests as inappropriate goals.26 A 2026 review of goals for autistic children under 12 found that professionals tended to favor normative goals while autistic people and families more often valued flexibility, self-advocacy and strengths, and often rated reducing traits or encouraging eye contact as less important.27 A review of autistic adults' views on early intervention found they endorsed goals around wellbeing, support and reducing harmful behavior, but not goals aimed at reducing autism traits.28
One proposal turns the focus onto the other person in the conversation. A 2025 perspective argues that most social-communication interventions try to change only the autistic person, which can harm their wellbeing, and suggests training communication partners as well.29
Therapists are starting to stop pushing autistic people to seem non-autistic. They are working on goals the autistic person picks. One review of 26 studies found that most still only described problems. It found that they rarely asked the children what they thought.24 A survey of 150 school therapists found almost all knew about neurodiversity. But more than half were not sure how to write goals that fit it.25
Autistic people and families often want the same things. In one survey, 181 autistic adults, parents, and therapists rated 47 goals. The top goal was the child's wellbeing. More than half said it was wrong to try to cut down sensory habits or special interests.26 A 2026 review found therapists often chose normal-looking goals. Autistic people and families wanted choices, speaking up, and strengths.27 A review of autistic adults found they wanted wellbeing and support. They did not want goals to make them less autistic.28
One idea is to train the other person too. A 2025 paper says most help tries to change only the autistic person. It suggests teaching the people they talk with as well.29
Surveys, scoping reviews and community-priority studies. They describe what therapists believe and what autistic people want; they do not measure what therapy achieves.
Surveys and reviews. They show what therapists think and what autistic people want. They do not show what therapy does.
What adults are offered Emerging
Speech and language therapy mostly happens in childhood, and the adult end is thin. A study that interviewed 18 autistic adults opened from the position that there is no clear therapy pathway for autistic adults and no established adult approaches; the adults described substantial communication difficulties and wanted support at both the personal and the social level.30 A systematic review of augmentative and alternative communication research found that only 3 of 69 papers were about adults, and that most measured whether a person could make a simple request.31
Access to communication support is the recurring gap. Autistic adults who can speak sometimes use augmentative and alternative communication for speech that is intermittent or unreliable, and a 2019 overview lists cost and mistaken beliefs about who such support is for as barriers.32 A 2023 tutorial reports that it is often treated as a last resort, and that speaking autistic adults say they would have benefited from it as children.33 A systematic review of the older evidence in people with developmental disabilities found that using augmentative communication did not reduce speech: in the six best-designed studies, no participant spoke less, and most gained some speech.34 A 2021 review of 28 studies in autistic children found that the communication aids improved speech, with gains that did not reach the level of the aid itself.35
Occupational therapy for adults, where it is studied, is about participation, work and community life, and about changing environments, rather than sensory training.12 No study found as of October 2026 has tested an adult version of the sensory-integration trials run in children.
Speech and language therapy mostly happens in childhood. One study asked 18 autistic adults about communication. The authors said there is no clear path to speech therapy for adults. The adults wanted help, both for themselves and for the people around them.30 A review of communication aid research found only 3 of 69 studies were about adults.31
Getting communication support is hard. Some autistic adults who can speak use other ways to communicate when speech is hard. Cost and wrong ideas about who these tools are for get in the way.32 These tools are often treated as a last choice. Some speaking autistic adults say they should have had them as children.33 One old study found that using these tools did not stop people from speaking. In the best studies, no one spoke less, and most spoke a little more.34
The adult therapy literature is small and mostly qualitative. No study found as of October 2026 has tested an adult version of the sensory-integration trials run in children.
Augmentative and alternative communication: ways of communicating other than speech, such as a speech-generating device, an app, pictures or typing.
There is little research on adults, and most of it is small. No study found as of October 2026 has tested an adult version of the sensory integration trials done in children.
Augmentative and alternative communication: ways to communicate that are not speech, such as a device, an app, pictures, or typing.
In the community Community
Autistic writers describe speech and language therapy and occupational therapy as part of the "early intervention therapies" a child is referred to soon after diagnosis, and they notice how little of the same support reaches adults. Orion Kelly names occupational therapy, speech therapy, psychology and physiotherapy as the usual referrals, and writes that for autistic adults such support "are nowhere near as common as what is potentially available for kids following a diagnosis."c1
A recurring target is the eye-contact goal. Sol Smith writes that the emphasis on getting children to make and maintain eye contact "does nothing for kids," while many autistic people find it uncomfortable.c2 Luke Beardon's advice to those supporting autistic adults is blunt: "never insist on eye contact."c3
Communication support can turn into control. Rebecca Wood, reporting observation in five English primary schools, describes a "choosing board" used to make a child pick the adult's activity, and concludes that "support for communication sometimes lapsed ... into control of communication."c4 A guide by autistic and clinician authors notes that many autistic adults experienced behavioral intervention as traumatic despite the providers' good intentions.c5
Autistic writers call these "early therapies". A child gets them soon after diagnosis. Orion Kelly says autistic adults get far less of this help than children do.c1
Autistic writers often talk about the eye-contact goal. Sol Smith writes that making children look at eyes "does nothing for kids".c2 Luke Beardon tells people to "never insist on eye contact".c3
Support for talking can turn into control. Rebecca Wood watched schools use a board to make a child pick what the adult wanted. She writes that this support sometimes turned into control instead.c4 Some writers say many autistic adults found this kind of therapy hard to bear. This happened even when the people running it meant well.c5
How autistic writers describe speech and language therapy and occupational therapy, and what they ask of the people who deliver them. Not a research finding.
How autistic writers describe these therapies, and what they ask for. This is not a research finding.
From nonspeaking writers Nonspeaking
Writers who are known mainly as nonspeaking describe communication support as the difference between being heard and not. Dillan Barmache, who types and spells to communicate, writes that the standard routes offered to nonspeaking people "offer no voice to the nonspeaking autistic community," and that the support that worked for him came from outside those routes.c6 Lisa Vallado, who uses a letterboard and a communication partner, writes that learning to spell on the letterboard let her "conquer the basic human right to have a voice and to be heard."c7
Writers who are called nonspeaking say communication support changed their lives. Dillan Barmache types and spells to talk. He writes that the usual paths "offer no voice to the nonspeaking autistic community".c6 Lisa Vallado uses a letterboard and a communication partner. She writes that learning to spell let her "have a voice and to be heard".c7
In their own words, written by typing, spelling, handwriting or AAC, some with a communication partner's support. Researchers dispute whether some partner-supported methods let the writer, not the partner, choose the words; the pedia reports these accounts as their writers' and does not settle that question here.
In their own words, written by typing, spelling, handwriting, or AAC, some with a communication partner's help. Researchers disagree about whether some of these ways let the writer, not the partner, choose the words. The pedia tells these stories as the writers' own and does not decide that question here.
Sources
Research
- 1Green J, Charman T, McConachie H, et al. Parent-mediated communication-focused treatment in children with autism (PACT): a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60587-9
- 2Pickles A, Le Couteur A, Leadbitter K, et al. Parent-mediated social communication therapy for young children with autism (PACT): long-term follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31229-6
- 3Green J, Leadbitter K, Ellis C, et al. Combined social communication therapy at home and in education for young autistic children in England (PACT-G): a parallel, single-blind, randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Psychiatry, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(22)00029-3
- 4Sandbank M, Bottema-Beutel K, Crowley LaPoint S, et al. Autism intervention meta-analysis of early childhood studies (Project AIM): updated systematic review and secondary analysis. BMJ, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-076733
- 5Sandbank M, Bottema-Beutel K, Crowley S, et al. Intervention effects on language in children with autism: a Project AIM meta-analysis. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_JSLHR-19-00167
- 6Sandbank M, Pustejovsky JE, Bottema-Beutel K, et al. Determining associations between intervention amount and outcomes for young autistic children: a meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2024.1832
- 7McGlade A, Whittingham K, Barfoot J, Taylor L, Boyd RN. Efficacy of very early interventions on neurodevelopmental outcomes for infants and toddlers at increased likelihood of or diagnosed with autism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Autism Research, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2924
- 8Oldenburg K, Gibbons T, Welch C, Tint A, Albin M. Describing the communication of autistic people during experiences of distress: a scoping review. Autism, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613261417933
- 9Patten KK, Murthi K, Onwumere DD, et al. Occupational therapy practice guidelines for autistic people across the lifespan. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 2024. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.078301
- 10Abu-Dahab SMN, Alwawi DA, Alkhamra HA. Do occupational therapy goals for children with autism spectrum disorder reflect participation? A mapping to the ICF-CY and ICF core sets study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-024-06560-7
- 11Novak I, Honan I. Effectiveness of paediatric occupational therapy for children with disabilities: a systematic review. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1630.12573
- 12Bagatell N, Chan DV, Syu YC, et al. Sensory processing and community participation in autistic adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 2022. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35719479/
- 13American Academy of Pediatrics, Section on Complementary and Integrative Medicine, Council on Children with Disabilities; Zimmer M, Desch L. Sensory integration therapies for children with developmental and behavioral disorders. Pediatrics, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-0876
- 14Barton EE, Reichow B, Schnitz A, Smith IC, Sherlock D. A systematic review of sensory-based treatments for children with disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.11.006
- 15Leong HM, Carter M, Stephenson J. Systematic review of sensory integration therapy for individuals with disabilities: single case design studies. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.09.022
- 16Kishida Y, Stephenson J, Kemp C, Salisbury C. Efficacy of interventions adhering to the revised Ayres Sensory Integration fidelity measure: a systematic review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-026-07283-7
- 17Acuña C, Gallegos-Berrios S, Barfoot J, Meredith P, Hill J. Ayres Sensory Integration with children ages 0 to 12: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 2025. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2025.051023
- 18Randell E, Wright M, Milosevic S, et al. Sensory integration therapy for children with autism and sensory processing difficulties: the SenITA RCT. Health Technology Assessment, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3310/tqge0020
- 19Park SH, Kim EY. Effects of sensory integration therapy in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105269
- 20Schoen SA, Lane SJ, Mailloux Z, et al. A systematic review of Ayres Sensory Integration intervention for children with autism. Autism Research, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2046
- 21Watling R, Hauer S. Effectiveness of Ayres Sensory Integration and sensory-based interventions for people with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 2015. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2015.018051
- 22Lyu B, Ba Y, Ma D, Liu N, Fu L, Xue Y. Effectiveness of sensory integration-based intervention in autistic children, focusing on Chinese children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2025. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41346641/
- 23Bottema-Beutel K, Crowley S, Sandbank M, Woynaroski TG. Research review: conflicts of interest (COIs) in autism early intervention research, a meta-analysis of COI influences on intervention effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13249
- 24Albin M, Rosenbaum P, Bode-Akinboye E, Hamdani Y, Phoenix M. How do speech-language pathology social communication interventions incorporate the strengths and perspectives of autistic children and their families: a scoping review. Autism, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613261448948
- 25DeMonte KH, Lugo-Neris MJ, Perry BJ. Assessing school-based speech-language pathologists' perspectives on neurodiversity-affirming practices for autistic students. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1044/2026_LSHSS-25-00080
- 26Sulek R, Edwards C, Monk R, et al. Community priorities for outcomes targeted during professional supports for autistic children and their families. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-024-06333-2
- 27Jordan P, Waddington H, Hammond M, Uljarevic M, Sainsbury WJ, Tupou J. Priorities and perspectives regarding goals and outcomes of support for autistic children under 12 years: a systematic review. Autism, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613261433132
- 28Nosova E, Sturrock A, Humphrey N, Leadbitter K. The views of autistic adults on early autism interventions: a mixed-methods systematic literature review. Autism, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613261460931
- 29Albin M, Chawrun I, Tint A. Rethinking social communication support: exploring communication partner training for autistic adults and their neurotypical communication partners. Autism in Adulthood, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2023.0181
- 30Cummins C, Pellicano E, Crane L. Autistic adults' views of their communication skills and needs. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12552
- 31Mifsud S, Thomas D, Bowron R, Sutherland R. The predominant focus is still on teaching children to make requests: a systematic review of AAC for autistic adults and children. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.70251
- 32Zisk AH, Dalton E. Augmentative and alternative communication for speaking autistic adults: overview and recommendations. Autism in Adulthood, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2018.0007
- 33Donaldson AL, Corbin E, Zisk AH, Eddy B. Promotion of communication access, choice, and agency for autistic students. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_LSHSS-22-00031
- 34Millar DC, Light JC, Schlosser RW. The impact of augmentative and alternative communication intervention on the speech production of individuals with developmental disabilities: a research review. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 2006. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16671842/
- 35White EN, Ayres KM, Snyder SK, Cagliani RR, Ledford JR. Augmentative and alternative communication and speech production for individuals with ASD: a systematic review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04868-2
Community sources
- c1Kelly O. Autism Feels ...: An Earthling's Guide. Dean Publishing, 2023. Chapter "Masking and early intervention therapies".
- c2Smith S. The Autistic's Guide to Self-Discovery: Flourishing as a Neurodivergent Adult. New World Library, 2025. Chapter "There's Got to Be Something Else Going On". Sol Smith's site
- c3Beardon L. What Works for Autistic Adults. Sheldon Press, 2023. Chapter "Zara".
- c4Wood R. "From disempowerment to well-being and flow: enabling autistic communication in schools." In Milton D, Ryan S, eds. The Routledge International Handbook of Critical Autism Studies. Routledge, 2022.
- c5Henderson D, Wayland S, White J. Is This Autism? A Companion Guide for Diagnosing. Routledge, 2023. Chapter 12.
- c6Peña E, ed. Leaders Around Me: Autobiographies of Autistics who Type, Point, and Spell to Communicate. Self-published, 2019. Chapter "Dillan Barmache".
- c7Peña E, ed. Leaders Around Me: Autobiographies of Autistics who Type, Point, and Spell to Communicate. Self-published, 2019. Chapter "Lisa Vallado".