Movement, coordination and tics
Motor differences and coordination difficulties are among the most common features that travel with autism, and the strongest evidence for them comes from children. This entry covers motor skills, dyspraxia, tics and the newer functional tic-like behaviors, falls in older autistic adults, and the barriers autistic adults meet when they try to be physically active.
Autistic children often find movement and coordination harder than other children. This entry explains what the research shows about movement, tics, falls in older autistic adults, and why many autistic adults are less active.
Motor differences in children Established
A systematic review and meta-analysis gathered 42 studies covering 3,142 children and adolescents, 1,561 of them autistic and most of them boys, aged 3 to 18. Across the studies, the autistic children scored lower than typically developing children on standard tests of manual dexterity, aiming and catching, balance, locomotor skills such as running and jumping, and object control, and they were more likely to fall in the at-risk range. Three tests supplied most of the data: the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency and the Test of Gross Motor Development.1
Those gaps are measured with the standard motor tests, and a framework discussed below argues that these tests assume typical communication, sensory processing and regulation and can distort results in autistic children. The direction of the difference is consistent across studies; how large it is for any one child is harder to pin down.
How the differences change with age is less settled. A cohort of 187 autistic and 136 non-autistic young people aged 6 to 18 found that the gap in grip strength, and in the strength items of one test, widened with age, while the test's overall score and its other items held steady or narrowed. That test also showed ceiling effects, which can hide differences in older children.2
Motor differences also occur in several other neurodevelopmental conditions besides autism. In one dataset of 262 children and adolescents with one or more such conditions, 77% scored in the Movement Assessment Battery's "red zone", the band where developmental coordination disorder is likely. A diagnosis of autism predicted lower aiming-and-catching scores, a diagnosis of developmental coordination disorder predicted lower overall and manual-dexterity scores, and a diagnosis of ADHD predicted higher overall and balance scores.3
A big review joined 42 studies of autistic children and teens. It had 3,142 young people, mostly boys, aged 3 to 18.1 On movement tests, the autistic children scored lower than other children. They scored lower in hand skills, catching, balance, running, jumping and kicking.1
Three tests did most of the work. They were the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test and the Test of Gross Motor Development.1
These tests may not fit autistic children well. They expect certain ways of talking and sensing. So the exact size of the gap is hard to know.
One study followed 187 autistic and 136 other young people, aged 6 to 18.2 The autistic group's hand strength fell further behind as they grew. Other skills stayed about the same.
Motor problems also show up in other conditions, not only autism. In one group of 262 children, 77% likely had a coordination problem.3
A 2026 systematic review and meta-analysis pooled 42 studies of children and adolescents and found lower motor competence in autistic children than in typically developing peers. Nearly all of the evidence in this section, and in the two tic sections below, comes from children; the adult sections further down rest on different studies with different outcomes. Most of the children in these studies were boys.
A framework for testing motor skills in autistic people, developed with autistic people and parents, argues that standard motor tests assume typical communication, sensory processing, regulation and comfort in unfamiliar places, which can distort the results. It describes motor differences as lasting a lifetime and linked to inactivity, heart and metabolic conditions, falls and chronic pain.4
The fine control of the hands and fingers, used in tasks such as writing, buttoning clothing and using a fork.
Many studies agree on this. The children in them were mostly boys.
Fine control of the hands and fingers. It is used for writing or doing up buttons.
A framework for testing motor skills in autistic people, developed with autistic people and parents, argues that standard motor tests assume typical communication, sensory processing, regulation and comfort in unfamiliar places, which can distort the results. It describes motor differences as lasting a lifetime and linked to inactivity, heart and metabolic conditions, falls and chronic pain.4
Dyspraxia and developmental coordination disorder Emerging
Developmental coordination disorder (DCD), also called dyspraxia, is the clinical name for coordination that falls well below what is expected for a person's age and that interferes with daily life. Motor delay is reported very often in autistic children. In a secondary analysis of a national autism dataset, parents of 2,644 autistic children completed a short motor questionnaire and an adaptive-behavior measure: 82% showed a motor delay on the questionnaire and 77% on the adaptive-behavior motor scale, with about 70% positive on both. Only 10% to 32% of those children had received any physical or recreational therapy.5
In children with DCD who do not have an autism diagnosis, the difficulty persists and can widen. A cross-sectional study of children and adolescents aged 4 to 17 found that the DCD group had more sensory-processing difficulties, lower motor proficiency and reduced everyday function than typically developing children, and the gap in functional mobility grew with age.6
DCD and autism overlap heavily, but the transdiagnostic data above show that the two did not predict exactly the same motor profile: autism predicted lower aiming-and-catching scores, while DCD predicted lower overall and manual-dexterity scores.3
Dyspraxia is the everyday name for developmental coordination disorder, or DCD. It means coordination much weaker than expected for a person's age.
Parents of 2,644 autistic children answered questions about movement. 82% reported a movement delay.5 Another measure gave 77%. About 70% showed a delay on both. Only 10% to 32% had been offered any movement therapy.5
Children with DCD, but not autism, keep having trouble as they grow. One study tested children aged 4 to 17.6 The DCD group had weaker movement, more sensory trouble and more trouble with daily tasks. That gap grew with age.
Autism and DCD are different labels, and they overlap. They are not quite the same, though. Autism went with lower catching scores. DCD went with lower overall scores.3
These findings come from cross-sectional studies and from parent-report screening, mostly in children. One is a single cohort of children with developmental coordination disorder and no autism diagnosis; another is a preliminary transdiagnostic dataset.
The dataset figures come from parent questionnaires, not from a clinician's examination. They show how often parents report motor delay, which is not quite the same as how many children meet the criteria for DCD.
These findings come from a few studies, mostly of children, and from parents' answers.
The figures above come from parents' answers, not from a doctor's exam. They show what parents notice, which is close to a diagnosis but not the same.
Tics and Tourette syndrome Emerging
A tic is a sudden, brief, repeated movement or sound, most often involving the eyes, face, head or shoulders. Tourette syndrome is diagnosed when both motor and vocal tics have been present for more than a year. Tics differ from the repetitive movements that are part of autism, which tend to be more complex, more rhythmic, longer lasting and to serve a purpose, such as hand-flapping.
Tourette syndrome is far less common in adults than in children. A review of prevalence studies puts it at about 1% in children and adolescents and about 0.01% in adults, several times more common in boys than in girls. The review notes that studies based on insurance or registry data likely underestimate how common it is, and that a substantial number of cases go undetected.7
Tics and Tourette syndrome often turn up alongside autism. In a Taiwanese national register, 7,986 people newly diagnosed with Tourette syndrome were each matched to four comparison people; those with Tourette syndrome were later diagnosed with autism about twice as often (adjusted hazard ratio 2.2), and more often with ADHD and OCD as well. The autism and ADHD risks were highest in children under 7, and higher in males.8 The register shows that the two diagnoses travel together; it does not show how common tics are among autistic people. In a British survey of 473 children aged 5 to 16 with tics, autistic traits went with tic onset about two and a half years earlier, but autism and ADHD traits were not linked to whether a child had tics at all.9
How much tics interfere with daily life depends on more than the tics themselves. In a registry of 496 children and adults with tic disorders, the strongest single factor was the motor-tic-interference score, which is itself one part of the scale used to rate how much tics cause trouble; older age and being female added to the burden, and autistic people were not more impaired by their tics.10 In a pediatric cohort, the number of other conditions a child had was the strongest predictor of how much treatment was needed, though a Tourette diagnosis also added to the burden on its own.11
A tic is a quick movement or sound that repeats. It often appears in the eyes, face, head or shoulders. A person has Tourette syndrome when they have both movement and sound tics for more than a year.
Tics are not the same as the repeating movements of autism, such as hand-flapping. Those tend to be more complex and to have a purpose.
Tourette syndrome is much more common in children than in adults. About 1 in 100 children have it, and about 1 in 10,000 adults.7 It is more common in boys. Many cases are missed.
Tics and Tourette syndrome often come with autism. In Taiwan, researchers followed 7,986 people with Tourette syndrome.8 They compared them with other people. The people with Tourette syndrome were later found to have autism about twice as often. They also more often had ADHD and OCD.
In a British survey, 473 children had tics.9 Children with more autism traits began having tics about two and a half years earlier. But autism traits did not change whether a child had tics at all.
One national register, one child survey, two clinical cohorts and a prevalence review. No meta-analysis of how common tics are in autistic people was found as of October 2026. Most of this evidence is from children; the parts that include adults are noted below.
A condition in which both motor and vocal tics have been present for more than a year.
One large study, one survey and a few small studies. Most of the people studied were children.
A condition with both movement tics and sound tics for more than a year.
Functional tic-like behaviors Emerging
Functional tic-like behaviors (FTLB) are multiple, complex, vocal and/or motor behaviors, typically starting in adolescence.12 They are studied separately from primary tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome.13 Across studies, people with FTLB have more severe and more complex symptoms and more anxiety and depression than the Tourette syndrome patients they are compared with, while the Tourette patients have more simple tics and more ADHD and OCD. Both groups vary a great deal.14
Clinics and reviews describe a sharp rise in these cases after 2020. A scoping review of 31 studies found that most were published after 2020 and named depression and anxiety among the most common accompanying conditions.13
Autism is common in FTLB samples. In 63 children and young people referred to a London specialist tic service between August 2020 and May 2022 with FTLB, 69.8% were also diagnosed with autism. The authors call that far above the rate in the general population, though a specialist clinic that people are referred to because of tics cannot measure how common autism is in FTLB overall. Those with FTLB and autism more often also had ADHD (61%) and a specific learning disorder (27%), and 37% of the sample had Tourette syndrome.12
The group is mostly female and often gender-diverse, which matters because the comparison groups of people with Tourette syndrome are mostly male. In a Calgary registry comparison, 41 young people with FTLB were 98% female, against 195 with primary tics who were 75% male.15 A second Calgary study of 82 young people found that 15 of 35 with FTLB identified as transgender or gender diverse, against 2 of 22 with Tourette syndrome. Compared with the Tourette group, the FTLB group had more depressive symptoms and a higher risk of suicidality, and compared with neurotypical controls they also had lower quality of life.16
Follow-up studies are few, but a review of them reports that symptoms usually ease over time while full remission is rare, and that cognitive therapy helped in the two treatment studies found.14
Functional tic-like behaviors, or FTLB, are movements or sounds that look like tics. They usually start in the teen years.12 They are studied separately from Tourette syndrome.13
Young people with FTLB have worse and more complex symptoms than young people with Tourette syndrome. They also have more anxiety and depression.14
More of these cases appeared after 2020. A review found that most studies came out after 2020.13
Many young people with FTLB are autistic. In one London clinic, 63 young people had FTLB.12 About 70% of them also had autism. Many also had ADHD or a learning difficulty.
Most young people with FTLB are female. In one study, 98 in 100 were female, while most people with Tourette syndrome are male.15 Another study found that 15 of 35 young people with FTLB were transgender or gender diverse. That was against 2 of 22 with Tourette syndrome.16
Symptoms often get better over time, but they rarely go away fully. Talking therapy helped in the two studies that tested it.14
The whole literature is recent and adolescent-heavy: a topical review, a scoping review, one clinic chart review and two matched-group studies. Functional tic-like behaviors are not the same thing as tics in Tourette syndrome.
Complex, tic-like movements or sounds that typically begin in adolescence and are classified as functional neurological symptoms rather than as a tic disorder.
These studies are all recent, and almost all are about teenagers. A tic-like movement is not the same as a tic in Tourette syndrome.
Movements or sounds that look like tics but are not a tic disorder. They usually begin in the teen years.
Falls in older adults Emerging
The clearest adult motor-health finding comes from falls. In US Medicare data covering 2013 to 2021, for 13,732 autistic and 25,497 matched non-autistic older adults aged 65 and over, 47.4% of the autistic older adults had a fall against 31.5% of the non-autistic older adults. After accounting for how long each person was observed, the autistic group had higher odds of any fall (odds ratio 1.99, 95% confidence interval 1.89 to 2.08), a higher rate of fall-related injuries (rate ratio 1.93) and a higher rate of fall-related hospitalizations (1.43).17
The authors suggest that motor coordination difficulties and antipsychotic medication use may add to the risk, and note that these participants were all born before autism entered the DSM, so the findings may not carry over exactly to later generations.17
Falling is a big health problem for older people. One study used US Medicare records. It compared 13,732 autistic older adults with 25,497 other older adults. All were 65 or older.17
47.4% of the autistic group had a fall. So did 31.5% of the other group. The autistic group also had more injuries and more stays in hospital from falls.17
The authors think movement problems and some medicines may add to the risk.17
One large cohort drawn from US Medicare claims. It is the main adult study of motor health in this entry, and it looks only at people aged 65 and over.
Falls in later life have many causes, from medication and blood pressure to vision and balance. This study can show that falls are more common in autistic older adults, not which single cause explains the difference.
One large study of health records for people aged 65 and over.
Medicine, eyesight, balance and other health problems all play a part. The study shows that falls are more common. It cannot say why.
Physical activity in adults Emerging
Autistic adults without intellectual disability tend to be less physically active than non-autistic adults. A scoping review gathered 15 studies of what autistic adults, and in some studies their parents or caregivers, see as the barriers and helps to physical activity, finding 48 barriers and 34 facilitators. Environment and social context stood out on both sides. The barriers people named included inaccessible or sensory-challenging places, money and time, existing sedentary routines, a lack of autism-informed support, stigma, and past bad experiences. The helps included accessible and sensory-friendly settings, social support, goals that feel enjoyable and meaningful, and being able to take part on their own terms.18
Wearable devices point the same way. A three-week accelerometer study of 318 autistic adults without intellectual disability and 130 non-autistic family members found lower physical activity in the autistic group, more variable sleep duration, and less day-to-day variation in sedentary time. Reduced daytime activity went with shorter sleep and with higher scores on a measure of social difficulty.19 In interviews, 17 autistic adults aged 36 to 59 described how assumptions about how a "normal" person exercises, the need to build trust, and sensory sensitivities shaped whether they took part at all.20
Social support shows up in the numbers too. Among 44 autistic adults, taking part in activity with family was linked to a higher chance of reaching 7,000 steps a day, though the range of possible effect was very wide (odds ratio 6.86, 95% confidence interval 1.26 to 41.1), and the study was cross-sectional; taking part with friends was not linked to it.21
The barriers that come up most in the research are environmental and social, such as noisy or crowded settings, cost and a lack of informed support, rather than a lack of interest.18
Autistic adults often move less than other adults. A review looked at 15 studies. It listed 48 things that get in the way of exercise and 34 things that help.18
The big barriers were places that were hard to reach or too busy, cost and lack of time. Not enough support was another barrier. Stigma and bad past experiences mattered too. Things that helped were calm, friendly places, support from others, and goals that felt good.18
In one study, 318 autistic adults wore activity trackers for three weeks.19 They moved less than their non-autistic family members. Moving less went with sleeping less.
In interviews, 17 autistic adults aged 36 to 59 talked about exercise.20 Ideas about how a "normal" person exercises, and the need to trust people, shaped whether they joined in.
Most of the barriers in the research are about the setting and the support, not about wanting to move.18
A scoping review, a wearables study, a small cross-sectional study and one set of interviews. All are observational, and they chart the barriers people describe rather than testing whether removing them raises activity.
These studies follow people and ask what they think. None of them tests whether removing a barrier raises activity.
In the community Community
Several autistic writers treat motor differences as part of being autistic, not as clumsiness. Pete Wharmby, describing his long struggle with tying shoelaces, writes that dyspraxia leaves him unable to coordinate his hands, arms, legs and feet "in any meaningful way", and adds that he can still play guitar and paint miniatures, so "dyspraxia isn't the full story".c1 Orion Kelly writes that motor skill challenges are "a trait", not clumsiness, and describes autistic children finding it harder to catch a ball.c2 David Plummer writes that autistic people "move differently" and describes his own boyhood trouble with sport.c3 Naomi, in an edited collection of adult accounts, writes that difficulty regulating her body temperature makes her dyspraxia symptoms worse.c4
A clinician's guide by Donna Henderson, Sarah Wayland and Jamell White notes that motor challenges can have lifelong consequences for play, daily living and work, and that the same person can have strong fine motor skills and still struggle with coordination.c5
Some writers make the point about physical activity that the research also makes. Megan Anna Neff writes that traditional exercise such as gyms and organized sports "can be sensory nightmares", and suggests looking instead for movement that feels good.c6 Niboroo, writing in the same collection as Naomi, pushes back on the idea that autistic people are not athletic: "I've often heard that people with Asperger's tend not to be athletic. I don't think that's true", adding that she has completed 16 triathlons in her 50s.c7
Many autistic writers say movement differences are part of being autistic. They do not call it clumsiness.
Pete Wharmby writes that dyspraxia makes it hard to control his hands, arms, legs and feet.c1 He says he can still play guitar and paint small models. Orion Kelly writes that movement challenges are "a trait", not clumsiness.c2 David Plummer writes that autistic people "move differently".c3 Naomi writes that her body temperature makes her dyspraxia worse.c4
A guide for doctors says movement problems can last a lifetime. They can affect daily life and work.c5
Megan Anna Neff writes that gyms and team sports "can be sensory nightmares". She suggests finding movement that feels good.c6 Niboroo disagrees that autistic people are not sporty. She says she has finished 16 triathlons in her 50s.c7
How autistic writers describe motor differences and physical activity. This is not a research finding.
This is how autistic writers describe movement and exercise. It is not a research finding.
From nonspeaking writers Nonspeaking
Adam Wolfond, who types and spells to communicate, writes about movement and ticcing as a kind of language of the body: "Please do not read my movements as dis-ordered. Ticcing is like an arrangement of my always-moving body."c8
Adam Wolfond types and spells to communicate. He writes that his movements are not "dis-ordered". He says, "Ticcing is like an arrangement of my always-moving body."c8
In their own words, written by typing, spelling, handwriting or AAC, some with a communication partner's support. Researchers dispute whether some partner-supported methods let the writer, not the partner, choose the words; the pedia reports these accounts as their writers' and does not settle that question here.
These are written in the writers' own words, by typing, spelling, handwriting or AAC. Some used a helper's support. The pedia shares these words as the writers' and does not settle that dispute.
Sources
Research
- 1Blanco-Martínez N, González-Devesa D, Varela S, Carballo-Afonso R, Ayán-Pérez C. Impaired Motor Competence in Children and Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Evidence From a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Autism Research, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.70347
- 2Block AR, Skaletski EC, Sheedy CM, Vanderpool EA, Travers BG. Motor Performance in Autistic Youth From Childhood Through Adolescence: Evidence for Both Sustained and Widening Group Differences. Autism Research, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.70211
- 3Fears NE, Tamplain PM, Miller HL. Examining Transdiagnostic Patterns of Motor Differences: Preliminary Findings From the Consortium for Motor Behavior in Neurodivergence (COMBINE). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-025-07042-0
- 4Miller HL, Tamplain PM, Tal-Saban M, Zoia S, Barnett AL, Henderson SE. Valid when Valued: A Community-Engaged Framework and Toolkit to Improve Identification of Autistic People's Motor Difficulties in Research and Practice. Autism in Adulthood, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1177/25739581261474754
- 5Bhat AN. Validating motor delays across the developmental coordination disorder-questionnaire and the Vineland adaptive behavior scales (VABS) in children with autism spectrum disorder: A SPARK dataset analysis. Autism Research, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.3189
- 6Shahid J, Amin N, Davis S, Chu V. Persistent Sensory, Motor and Functional Difficulties From Childhood to Adolescence in Developmental Coordination Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-026-07314-3
- 7Yilmaz AY, Jankovic J. Epidemiology of Tourette Syndrome. Brain Sciences, 2025. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15050426
- 8Chang H, Lin CY, Tsai TH, Gau SY, Lin ZH, Huang KH, Lee CY. Relationship between Tourette Syndrome and Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Taiwan: A Population-Based Cohort Study. Neuroepidemiology, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1159/000551961
- 9Roberts E, Patel D, Tyagi H. Autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder traits as predictors of tic phenomenology in children and adolescents. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-026-03180-7
- 10Davenport WJ, Martino D, Ganos C, Nilles C, Pringsheim T. Clinical Predictors of Tic-Related Impairment in Children and Adults with Tourette Syndrome. Movement Disorders, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.70342
- 11Sica A, Puglisi B, Pintar S, Dalena P, Barbi E, Skabar A. Comorbidity burden and treatment patterns in Tourette syndrome and persistent motor or vocal tic disorder. European Journal of Pediatrics, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-026-07009-y
- 12Liang H, Wu C, Duncan M, Simpson L, Smith A, Harrold K, Pearman Z, Warren A, Shavel-Jessop S, Murphy T, Heyman I, Evans S, Catanzano M. Autism in children and young people with functional tic-like behaviours: a retrospective cross-sectional study. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2024-328445
- 13Nemeh MN, Tahir P, Hirschtritt ME, Kalapatapu RK. Psychiatric comorbidity in functional tics: a scoping review. BMC Psychiatry, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-07932-2
- 14Andersen K, Szejko N, Müller-Vahl KR, Cavanna AE, Hedderly T, Greenberg E, Debes NM. What Do We Currently Know About Functional Tic-Like Behaviors: A Topical Review. Pediatric Neurology, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2026.02.007
- 15Nilles C, Martino D, Berg L, Fletcher J, Pringsheim T. What are the Key Phenomenological Clues to Diagnose Functional Tic-Like Behaviors in the Pandemic Era? Movement Disorders Clinical Practice, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1002/mdc3.13977
- 16Berg L, Martino D, L'Erario ZP, Pringsheim T. Symptom Severity and Health Impacts of Functional Tic-Like Behaviors in Youth. Pediatric Neurology, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2024.03.016
- 17Bishop L, Blake M, Nikahd M, Hyer JM, Patterson BW, Wolf BJ, Hand BN. Falls and Fall-Related Injuries and Hospitalizations in Autistic Older Adults: A Medicare Data Study. Autism, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613261433988
- 18Duong VN, Quested E, McVeigh J, Wan P, Thompson C. Perceived Barriers and Facilitators to Physical Activity Among Autistic Adults: A Scoping Review. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2026-0200
- 19Weissenkampen JD, Ghorai A, Carneiro TNR, Fasolino M, Gehringer BN, Rajan M, Dow HC, Kunatharaju S, Roenneberg T, Sebro R, Rader DJ, Keenan BT, Almasy L, Brodkin ES, Bućan M. Sleep and activity patterns in autism. Autism, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613251413538
- 20McLeod J, Roderick M, Hanley M, Riby DM, Jachyra P. Perspectives and experiences of physical activity among autistic adults in middle adulthood. Autism, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613251360862
- 21Nunez-Gaunaurd A, Tovin MM, Kermah D, Beech BM, Bruce MA. Moving together: The role of family co-participation in promoting physical activity among adults with autism. Disability and Health Journal, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2026.102115
Community sources
- c1Wharmby P. Untypical: How the World Isn't Built for Autistic People and What We Should All Do About It. Mudlark, 2023. Chapter 6, "Tying Shoelaces and Other Daily Challenges". Pete Wharmby's site
- c2Kelly O. Autism Feels ...: An Earthling's Guide. Dean Publishing, 2023. Chapter "Motor skill challenges".
- c3Plummer DW. Secrets of the Autistic Millionaire. Self-published, 2021. Chapter "Coordination and Movement".
- c4Naomi, in Ratcliffe A, ed. Our Autistic Lives: Personal Accounts from Autistic Adults Around the World Aged 20 to 70+. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2019. Chapter "Naomi".
- c5Henderson D, Wayland S, White J. Is This Autism?: A Guide for Clinicians and Everyone Else. Routledge, 2023. Chapter "Neurological challenges".
- c6Neff MA. Self-Care for Autistic People: 100+ Ways to Recharge, De-Stress, and Unmask!. Adams Media, 2024. Chapter "Find Pleasurable Movement". Megan Anna Neff's site
- c7Niboroo, in Ratcliffe A, ed. Our Autistic Lives: Personal Accounts from Autistic Adults Around the World Aged 20 to 70+. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2019. Chapter "Niboroo".
- c8Wolfond A, in Peña E, ed. Leaders Around Me: Autobiographies of Autistics who Type, Point, and Spell to Communicate. Self-published, 2019. Chapter "Adam Wolfond".